Zinc and immune function: the biological basis of altered resistance to infection
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9701160/
Zinc is known to play a central role in the immune system
and zinc-deficient persons experience increased susceptibility to a variety of pathogens
It is clear that zinc affects multiple aspects of the immune system
Zinc is crucial for normal development and function of cells mediating nonspecific immunity such as neutrophils and natural killer cells
Zinc deficiency also affects development of acquired immunity, activation of T lymphocytes and B lymphocyte help
B lymphocyte development and antibody production, particularly immunoglobulin G, is compromised
The macrophage, is adversely affected by zinc deficiency
Zinc is needed by these key immunologic mediators
Basic cellular functions such as DNA replication
RNA transcription, cell division, and cell activation
https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fimmu.2020.01712/full
Zinc deficiency results in altered numbers and dysfunction of all immune cells
Suboptimal zinc states have an increased risk for infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders, and cancer
Risk groups for zinc deficiency
Malnutrition
Elderly and patients with various inflammatory and autoimmune diseases
Mild zinc deficiency is largely sub-clinical,
it is unnoticed in most people
World Health Organization
Assumes that at least one third of the world population is affected by zinc deficiency
Zinc deficiency is responsible for 16% of all deep respiratory infections world-wide
Supplementation, for which minimal to no side effects are known.
Europe 10 to 20% zinc deficiency
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Zinc Protects the Human Body From Entering of the Virus
Essential for tissue barriers equipped with cilia and mucus, anti-microbial peptides like lysozymes and interferons
The expression of tight junction proteins was found to be zinc-dependent
Mucociliar clearance of viruses is affected by zinc
Physiological concentrations of zinc increase ciliary beat frequency
Zinc-dependent alterations in gene expression by pneumocytes
Associations with interferons
Zinc Directly Inhibits Viral Replication
Direct antiviral effects of zinc have been demonstrated
E.g. coronaviridae, picornavirus, papilloma virus, metapneumovirus, rhinovirus, herpes simplex virus, varicella-zoster virus, respiratory syncytial virus, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), and the hepatitis C virus
It was suggested that zinc can prevent fusion with the host membrane
Decreases the viral polymerase function
Blocks viral particle release
Destabilizes the viral envelope
Zinc Balances the Immune Response During Infectious Diseases
Hyper-inflammation, immune products including pro-inflammatory cytokines
Movement and over activation of immune cells to the lungs
Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS)
Need of zinc for lymphocyte development and function and that zinc supplementation can reverse lymphopenia
Zinc is indispensable in the signal cascade of the T cell receptor and as a second messenger
Zinc is required for B cell maturation and function
Zinc Supplementation in Respiratory Infections
A row of successful supplementation studies focusing on respiratory tract infection
In most cases, prophylactic zinc supplementation was more effective than therapeutic proceedings
Studies showed reduced symptom severity, reduced frequency, and duration of the common cold after zinc administration
Zinc supplementation of children in developing countries
Reduced pneumonia-specific morality by 15%
and 19% of pneumonia morbidity by 19%
Risk Groups and Symptoms of COVID-19 and Zinc Deficiency Reveal a Large Overlap
Low serum zinc levels are regularly observe
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